By Girish Linganna
May 11: The Special Frontier Force (SFF) is a discreet and specialized unit within the Indian army, predominantly composed of Tibetan refugees. Its primary purpose is to bolster India's security strategy along the Tibetan border in response to China. What sets this unit apart is its unique origin: it was established in the 1960s with financial and training support from the CIA.
Background
In 1962, relations between India and China were strained over the contested Himalayan Border. Despite repeated efforts, negotiations to resolve the border issue repeatedly failed. As tensions escalated, both nations increased military presence along the border, leading to frequent skirmishes. Eventually, this led to a full-blown war between China and India in October 1962.
After facing significant losses in the Sino-Indian War, the Indian military realized the importance of having specialized units in border regions. This led to the creation of the Special Frontier Force, also known as SFF or 'Establishment 22'.
Timeline Overview
Late 1950s – General Thimayya, the Chief of the Indian Army, suggests forming a paramilitary unit composed of Tibetan refugees to address the increasing threat from China. However, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru rejects these proposals.
20th October 1962 – The Sino-Indian War starts.
14th November 1962 – Under Jawaharlal Nehru's direction, the Special Frontier Force is established.
21st November 1962 – The Sino-Indian War concludes with a ceasefire and a Chinese victory.
1962 – 1964 – The SFF undergoes intensive training in jungle and mountain warfare, conducted by the CIA and India's Intelligence Bureau.
1964 – SFF starts air training.
1968 – SFF achieves full qualification in air warfare within the Indian military and is recognized as a specialist unit in mountain and jungle warfare. Training in air and naval operations continues.
1971 – SFF participates in combat during the Indo-Pakistani War.
1971 – The CIA withdraws from the SFF training program, pulling out troops and funding due to deteriorating political relations between the US and India.
Establishment History
In the late 1950s, General K.S. Thimayya, the Chief of the Indian Army, proposed the creation of a specialized rural warfare unit. However, this suggestion was initially dismissed by political leaders. The idea gained renewed interest during the Sino-Indian War.
A formal agreement was established between the Chushi Gangdruk (a Tibetan guerrilla group), R&AW (India’s main foreign intelligence agency), and the CIA. All three parties involved had their own interests in countering the threats posed by China at the China-India border.
Chushi Gangdruk : CG was a group of fighters in Tibet who used guerrilla tactics. They came together because they believed in Tibetan nationalism.
R&AW : India had ongoing security concerns related to China and needed to establish its authority in its border disputes. At the time the SFF was created, India was still officially at war with China.
The CIA : During the Cold War, the United States had significant concerns about the increasing communist threat originating from China. Consequently, providing assistance to Indian special forces would contribute to achieving this strategic goal.
As a result, an agreement was reached to establish a paramilitary organization, directed by the Nehru administration, with the main objective of specializing in rural warfare and conducting reconnaissance operations along the Tibetan border.
The SFF came into existence in 1962, specifically in the town of Chakrata, located in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand. This region was chosen due to its proximity to the Tibet border and its significant population of Tibetan refugees.
Consequently, the initial composition of the SFF consisted of approximately 5,000 to 6,000 Tibetan refugees residing in Chakrata, including individuals who had already been involved in the long fighting under Chushi Gangdruk. At its peak, the SFF is estimated to have reached a strength of around 12,000 personnel.
Tactics ,Techniques and Procedure (TTP)
Given the border conflicts and the threat emanating from the northern region, India recognized the necessity for specialized training in remote areas. Consequently, the SFF was stationed in border regions and underwent intensive training to develop expertise in jungle and mountain warfare.
Although it maintained an independent status from the Indian army, the SFF functioned as a paramilitary organization with its leadership reporting to the R&AW directorate. The SFF consisted of six battalions, commonly referred to as "Vikas" units.
At the start, the SFF predominantly relied on weaponry supplied by the United States, particularly M-1, M-2, and M-3 machine guns. However, as the SFF achieved significant strategic victories in the early 1960s, additional supplies were furnished by the US and the R&AW. This included the provision of aircraft to facilitate the initiation of an air training program.
In addition to engaging in combat operations, Establishment 22 undertook espionage missions along the Tibetan border with the primary objective of monitoring Chinese nuclear and missile tests.
CIA Withdrawl
In 1971, the CIA withdrew its troops from SFF training. The deterioration of political relations between the US and India, particularly during the early years of the Nixon administration, was a result of Nixon openly supporting Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani war. This strained relations between the two countries, leading to the removal of the CIA from SFF training and funding initiatives.
According to limited reports, it is suggested that the KGB took advantage of the void left by the CIA within the SFF. Allegedly, the Soviet Union deployed KGB operatives to provide additional training to the SFF forces.
Modern SFF
The SFF has played a crucial role in various strategic operations carried out by India since its establishment. Examples include its involvement in key advancements during the Bangladesh War of 1971 and its participation in Operation Bluestar in 1984.
The SFF continues to be a specialized paramilitary unit in India, recruiting officers exclusively from elite military units. Present-day operatives undergo training in various forms of warfare, including air, mountain, jungle, and water-based operations. Although technically operating independently, the SFF leadership reports to the R&AW director regarding progress and training. It remains the sole ethnic Tibetan unit within the Indian Army.
Summary
The Special Frontier Force (SFF) is a specialized paramilitary unit within the Indian army. It was created through a multinational agreement with the aim of addressing the increasing threat posed by Chinese communism. Despite significant changes in the political landscape since its inception, the SFF has consistently played a crucial role in India's strategic successes and intelligence operations. This information is stated by Grey Dynamics, a private intelligence firm based in London.
(The author Girish Linganna of this article is a Defence, Aerospace & Political Analyst based in Bengaluru. He is also Director of ADD Engineering Components, India, Pvt. Ltd, a subsidiary of ADD Engineering GmbH, Germany. You can reach out to him at: girishlinganna@gmail.com)